Carolingian Manuscripts

The so-called Carolingian Renaissance (ca. 780 – ca. 900), during which time numerous monasteries with scriptoria and schools at various royal courts were established, laid the foundations of what most people would think of as the Renaissance, which began in 14th century Italy before spreading north. It was initiated by the Emperor Charlemagne (742-814), whose intent was to establish a successor state to the Western Roman Empire, this not only meant conquering and administering territory but restoring occidental learning. 

Although Western Europe in the misnamed Dark Ages was not as devoid of art and culture as one might think – Insular illumination from the 6th to the 8th centuries is some of the finest medieval art to survive to the present – manuscript production increased exponentially under the Carolingians, as did the sophistication of artistry and the refinement of materials. 

Although the instability of the 10th century, caused by raids and invasions by Vikings, Arabs, and Magyars ended this first Renaissance, Carolingian art continued to be produced in the 10th century and gradually evolved into other artistic styles. The Carolingian Renaissance and its artistic style were the catalyst for the high-medieval resurgence of European art and learning that eventually led to the Italian Renaissance. 

First founded by Charles Martel (ca. 688-741), victor of the Battle of Tours (732), and elevated to unparalleled glory by Charlemagne, who was often referred to as Karolus in contemporary accounts, the Carolingians were one of the most powerful and important European dynasties. Charlemagne’s empire encompassed modern-day France, the Low Countries, Germany, Northern Italy, and had vassal states in central Europe. 

He was also one of the greatest patrons of art and education in history, as were his descendants. The Carolingians consciously adopted an artistic style that imitated the art of Late Antiquity because they were claiming to be the heirs of the Romans. This is why figures are portrayed in togas instead of reflecting contemporary fashions, for example. 

Thus, Charlemagne imported Anglo-Saxon and Irish monks like Alcuin of York (ca. 735-804) to his new capital at Aachen to standardize script, take charge of scriptoria, and restore standards that scholars had previously enjoyed and which we take completely for granted today. Carolingian miniscule is characterized by its clear, uniform, round shapes that are a combination of Roman half uncial and insular scripts. 

Carolingian miniscule originated ca. 800 and was used until its decline in the 12th century, but then experienced a revival during the Renaissance by scribes who used it as the basis for new fonts. This script was critical for creating legible copies of ancient texts because most of our modern knowledge of classical literature is grounded in translations from Charlemagne’s scriptoria. Therefore, the invention of Carolingian miniscule is second to none among the cultural contributions made by the “Father of Europe”.

Although strongly rooted in classical art, Byzantine illumination abandoned realism in favor of an abstract or anti-naturalistic character of great symbolic power and was representative of the connection between religion and imperial power in the Byzantine Empire. As a result, it often has monumental figures set against monochromatic or architectural backgrounds. 

Insular or Hiberno-Saxon illumination has its origins in pagan Celtic and Germanic religious traditions, but also has influences in Roman and Coptic art, particularly with regard to its depictions of carpets and mosaics. Insular art is most clearly characterized by its intricate interlace; these patterns, sometimes called Celtic knots, often formed frames for images such as portraits of the Evangelists and were used to create incredibly artful and complex initials both great and small. 

Carolingian art would combine these styles in an aesthetic balancing the chaotic energy of the Insular style with Byzantine solemnity, an aesthetic for an emperor who was looking to the past while also establishing a new dynasty.

Aside from Charlemagne, other high-ranking members of the Frankish nobility, including both his legitimate and illegitimate descendants, also patronized splendidly illuminated manuscripts. These patrons would often be portrayed in “dedication pictures” within the manuscript, or they would have the intended recipient depicted as though they were being presented the manuscript. 

Such splendid manuscripts could either be commissions for personal use or could be intended for ceremonial purposes and were given as gifts to monasteries or cathedrals, sometimes part of a larger endowment. These were usually made by cleric-artists (who were almost always anonymous) who worked at one of the scriptoria established by Charlemagne at his royal court or in monasteries founded by him. 

The center of Carolingian illumination shifted over the decades, as did the dominant style. The “Court-” and “Palace School” of Charlemagne (also called the Ada School) at Aachen were the first centers of artistic production. Operating contemporarily, the former was led by Alcuin and mostly consisted of Irish and Anglo-Saxons while the latter seems to have been staffed by artists from Byzantium or Byzantine Italy. Rheims, Tours, and Metz would later emerge as centers of manuscript production, most of them patronized by his descendants, and each with its own stylistic markers. 

An early example of this is the Golden Psalter of Charlemagne (ca. 795), which was gifted to his wife Hildegard: it is small enough to be carried on one’s person and its rich decoration is characterized by large, detailed historiated initials with bright colors and gold leaf, and a text written entirely in gold ink, but without miniatures. 

Both point to the skill and diversity of artists in the first half of the 9th century, but the late-9th century Psalterium Sancti Ruperti also testifies to their innovation: it is the smallest medieval manuscript in existence – measuring only 3.7 x 3.1 cm. In spite of being the size of a matchbox, its text is incredibly legible and is adorned by full-page miniatures and initials featuring gold leaf and purple backgrounds. 

The latter, also known as the Vienna Coronation Gospels for its modern repository, is the codex upon which German kings and emperors swore their oaths of office since (according to legend) it was removed from Charlemagne’s tomb in the year 1000. Originating from shortly before Charlemagne’s imperial coronation on Christmas Day in the year 800, it possesses a truly imperial air thanks to the creations of its presumably Byzantine artists: it consists entirely of purple-dyed parchment pages with biblical texts written in gold and silver ink, large historiated initials, and full-page portraits of the Evangelists. 

Two sacramentary manuscripts, texts which contain the readings for priest officiating mass, of great historical and art historical importance originated during the reign of Charles the Bald (823-877), the grandson of Charlemagne. Bishop Drogo (801-855) was a powerful prince of the church, one of the greatest art patrons of the 9th century, and one of Charlemagne’s illegitimate sons. 

The Drogo Sacramentary distinguishes itself through its Insular-style initials, ranging from small but detailed initials to large, elaborate ones containing figural scenes relevant to the adjoining texts. This manuscript is the product of one of the court schools and is of a highly personalized nature, e.g. it only contains readings for feast days that the Bishop would preside over. 

Meanwhile, the illustration style of the famous manuscripts of the Apocalypse commentary by Saint Beatus of Liébana have their roots in the masterful Apocalypse of Valenciennes, originating in the first quarter of the 9th century. This manuscript is thus of tremendous importance for the history of Spanish manuscript production. 

Louis the Pious, Charlemagne’s son and heir, commissioned the Aratea, an astronomical handbook considered to be a milestone in the field, as evidenced by multiple translations over the centuries. Its 39 full-page miniatures with gold leaf show the figures and forms of ancient Greek mythology that serve the author of the Aratea as the foundation of his astronomy. 

The book could also be used for navigation purposes and was therefore an object of both beauty and practicality. These are just two examples of how Carolingian scholars were fascinated by the knowledge of antiquity, rather than moralists who simple rejected pagan wisdom.  

During the 10th century, when the Carolingian Renaissance was interrupted by a period of instability characterized by Viking raids and internal strife between the descendants of Charlemagne, law and order were more important than ever. It is for that reason that the oldest German legal codes, the Lex Salica, Lex Lombardia, Lex Bavaria, and Lex Ripuria were written down and recorded in a single manuscript for the first time in the Leges Salicae. 

This established a legal code with punishments and fines for criminal offenses, while also stipulating the right of succession. This so-called Salic Law became the basis of legal systems across Europe and not just in the lands of the Holy Roman Empire, where it remained the basis of the legal system until the 18th century. 

These legal traditions would later be recorded and adorned in manuscripts like the Mirror of Saxony and other “mirror” texts. Such medieval legal texts have taught us inter alia that people were actually very litigious during the Middle Ages and aspired to live in a society governed by law. 

Ottonian illuminators continued to develop and refine the monumental, imperial style of Carolingian illumination. West of the Rhine, Romanesque illumination, while still influenced by Byzantine art, was also characterized by its embrace of the innovative and anti-classical décor of Insular illumination, and would continue to favor certain manuscripts genres that were popular with the Carolingians, e.g. Psalters. 

The Romanesque style was the first to reach every corner of Europe, with each region developing its own variation, and from it would emerge the elegant Gothic style, which would be the first truly universal European aesthetic. Just as Charlemagne can be considered to be the “Father of Europe” today, so too can Carolingian art be considered to be the progenitor of subsequent European artistic epochs.