The Tomb of Christ - The Mystery of the Resurrection in Medieval Illumination

04.04.2023

The Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem is probably one of the most famous sacral buildings in the world and, as the central pilgrimage site of Christianity, attracts millions of believers and interested people every year – given that it houses the Golgotha rock and the Holy Sepulcher, where Jesus Christ is said to have been buried after his crucifixion. As early as the 4th century, Constantine the Great had the structure built as a place of worship, creating an architecture that would shape the concept of the Holy Sepulcher for centuries: even today, the burial chamber is enclosed by a chapel-like aedicule, which in turn is located within the Dome of the Anastasis.

The Holy Sepulcher is the central pilgrimage site of the Christian community. It is enclosed by a chapel-like aedicula, which in turn is located in a rotunda, the Dome of the Anastasis. (Source: iStock/ZZ3701) — Holy Sepulchre of Christ in Jerusalem

Between 1481 and 1504, a whole landscape of chapels was created in Gorlitz, which allowed the late medieval people to retrace the Passion of Christ in Jerusalem, including the Holy Sepulcher. In the small architecture, the Jerusalem aedicula of the time was amazingly accurately recreated. (Source: WikimediaCommons/ProfessorX) — Holy Sepulcher in Görlitz

The veneration of the tomb and the mystery of the resurrection is already evident in the Middle Ages not only in a flourishing pilgrimage system and the extensive trade in relics, but as a result especially in countless chapels imitating the Holy Sepulchre, such as the so-called Holy Sepulchre in Görlitz, which were intended to allow the holy site to be physically tangible in other places as well. Moreover, the feast of the Resurrection, Easter, is the most important religious event of the Christian year.

This Romanesque miniature from the scriptorium of an Alsatian monastery shows the empty tomb of Christ together with all the possible pictorial staff: halfway in the tomb sits an angel who addresses the three Marys on the left side with an orator's gesture; in front of the sarcophagus lie three sleeping guards. (Gospel Book from St. Peter’s, Weissenburg Abbey (Alsace, France) — 1200) — Gospel Book from St. Peter’s
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The Holy Sepulchre in Book Illumination

However, the stories surrounding the tomb of Christ were also a popular and important, if not so visible, theme in book painting. After all, the empty tomb is one of the greatest mysteries of the biblical stories, which occupied countless Christian scholars. How could one imagine the process of resurrection? And what evidence could be brought to bear on it?

As a reminder, the Gospels, as well as some apocryphal writings, tell us that after the crucifixion Jesus' body was buried in a rock tomb sealed with a large, heavy stone. As previously announced, Christ's resurrection occurred three days after the burial, whereupon various people close to him found the tomb empty. In the 40 days that followed, the resurrected Christ appeared again and again to his followers, before finally ascending to heaven.

For as Jonas was three days and three nights in the whale's belly; so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth. (Mt. 12,40)

In the course of the Middle Ages, illuminators found different solutions to bring the key moment of the Resurrection into the image, which must have been quite a challenge, since a moment was to be depicted for which there were no descriptions due to the lack of eyewitnesses. Thus, at first the empty tomb itself became the central theme of the picture, accompanied by the two or three Marys who find there the angel who tells them about the Resurrection. While here the mystery is emphasized by the absence of Christ, later illuminators decided to show the mysterious event itself and thus accentuated Christ's victory over death.

The impressive ivory panel in the book cover of th Sacramentary of Henry II is divided into two pictorial registers: While a crucifixion scene is displayed at the top, in the lower register we see the empty tomb of Christ on the left, flanked by two sleeping guards, who are identified as soldiers by the round shield. In front of the open entrance to the tomb-mausoleum sits, directly below Jesus, the angel who tells the three Marys coming from the right about Christ's resurrection. In particular, the foremost of the women and the angel are especially striking for their large, gesticulating hands and are turned toward each other as they communicate. (Sacramentary of Henry II, Benedictine Abbey of St. Emmeram, Regensburg (Germany) — 1007–1014) — Sacramentary of Henry II
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A Mausoleum for Christ

The so called Reidersche Tafel shows Christ's tomb below in combination with the Ascension, which occurs in the upper right: Christ being pulled up into heaven by the hand of God. (Source: WikimediaCommons/AndreasPraefcke) — Reidersche Tafel

The famous Reidersche Tafel (around 400 AD) shows the earliest representation of the tomb: On the left side rises a tower-like mausoleum of late antique forms. On a rectangular pedestal rests a round aedicula with filigree double columns – a reminiscence of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, which was already architecturally enclosed around the time this ivory panel was created. In front of the tomb, an angel sits on some rocks, stretching his hand with a orator's gesture towards the three Marys approaching from the right. Remarkably, the door to the burial chamber is locked – so the women must trust the word of the angel.

Things are different in the Sacramentary of Henry II: although both the full-page miniature and the ivory panel of the book cover also show the tomb of Christ in an exterior view as a tower-like mausoleum, here the angel explicitly points to the open tomb, whose yawning emptiness is eye-catching. In the dark entrance of the peculiarly layered painted architecture hover only two parts of the shrouds of Christ.

The full-page miniature of the Sacramentary of Henry II shows the tomb as a tower-like mausoleum, which consists of many colorful and golden layers of architecture and has two domes at once. The structure is flanked by two stylized trees with artful leaves, while from the left two women enter the picture with an thurible. There they meet the angel who tells them about Christ's resurrection. The figures are not only facing each other communicatively, but also the empty tomb. (Sacramentary of Henry II, Benedictine Abbey of St. Emmeram, Regensburg (Germany) — 1007–1014) — Sacramentary of Henry II
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The open entrance of the tomb reveals the yawning emptiness inside the mausoleum, represented by a dark, purple area. Only two white and golden shrouds hover in this transcendental space, hinting at the miracle that has taken place here. (Sacramentary of Henry II, Benedictine Abbey of St. Emmeram, Regensburg (Germany) — 1007–1014) — Sacramentary of Henry II
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The impressive ivory panel in the book cover of the Sacramentary of Henry II is divided into two registers: While a detailed crucifixion scene is revealed at the top, in the lower register we see the empty tomb of Christ on the left, flanked by two sleeping guards, identified as soldiers by the round shield. In front of the open entrance to the tomb-mausoleum sits, directly below Jesus, the angel who tells the three Marys coming from the right about Christ's resurrection. In particular, the foremost of the women and the angel are especially remarkable for their large, gesticulating hands and are turned toward each other as they communicate. (Sacramentary of Henry II, Benedictine Abbey of St. Emmeram, Regensburg (Germany) — 1007–1014) — Sacramentary of Henry II
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It is astonishing that even the early book painting seems to be oriented more to the pilgrimage site in Jerusalem than to the biblical descriptions. The detailed and magnificent mausoleums do not correspond in the least to the Gospels, which all speak of a rock tomb:

And [Joseph] took it down, and wrapped it in linen, and laid it in a sepulchre that was hewn in stone, wherein never man before was laid. (Lk. 23,53)

Nevertheless, this pictorial tradition can be found in various artistic testimonies until the 13th century. From about 1000, however, another variant predominates: the sarcophagus.

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The Tomb of Christ as Sarcophagus

Pictures showing the tomb as a rectangular, stone sarcophagus often give us a glimpse of the interior of the peculiar mausoleums. By arranging the Marys and the angel in front of ornate pillared arcades with rounded arches, they often remain attached to the traditional, detailed architecture. What is new, however, is that the angel sits on an empty sarcophagus while informing the women of what has happened. The lid of the tomb is thereby strangely displaced, especially in earlier works such as the Gospel Harmony of Eusebius and the Reichenau Pericopes Book, to reveal a view of the void - an interpretation of the stone being rolled away. Both the tomb and the angel seem to be devoid of any physical laws. Rather, they hover as remaining artifacts of the miraculous event in front of mostly golden backgrounds, which also suggest that something divine has occurred here.

Opposite a beautiful "M" initial introducing the word "Mary", the two Marys enter Christ's burial chamber to find an empty sarcophagus with the angel sitting on its green lid moved away. The scene takes place in front of a masoned double arcade with a column in the center, suggesting that the figures are inside an architectural burial chamber. (Reichenau Pericopes Book, Monastery of Reichenau (Germany) — Beginning of the 11th century) — Reichenau Pericopes Book
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Likewise, in the Gospel Harmony of Eusebius, the angel sits on the almost hovering green lid of the sarcophagus, while he tells the two Marys on the left side about Christ's resurrection. Meanwhile, the two women, carrying ointment jars, look at each other in astonishment. The arcature in the background again suggests an interior space, with the center of the picture field dominated by the striking golden background: the emptiness in the center illustrates the mystery that has taken place here. (Gospel Harmony of Eusebius, Monastery of Reichenau (Germany) — Second quarter of the 11th century) — Gospel Harmony of Eusebius
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Pacino de Bonaguida's wonderful Trecento miniature, on the other hand, shows the scene in a hilly landscape against a deep blue background. The much more naturalistic marble sarcophagus stands outdoors, while the angel sits casually on the high rim of the open tomb. The removed lid is only hinted at in the background here.

Likewise, the miniature in the Brandenburg Evangeliary transposes the scene into a landscape. The open tomb stands on a lush green meadow strewn with flowers, which provides a strong earthly contrast to the golden background in the upper third of the picture. In the grass there are also three other figures that often complement the iconography of the tomb: the sleeping guards - more on this later.

Pacino de Bonaguida transfers the scene to a wide landscape under an open sky. (Pacino di Bonaguida’s Picture Book, Florence (Italy) — 1320–1330) — Pacino di Bonaguida’s Picture Book
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The miniature in the Brandenburg Evangeliary also suggests an outdoor space: The strikingly patterned sarcophagus stands on a hilly lush green meadow studded with small red flowers, seemingly inviting the guardians to take a nap. (Brandenburg Evangeliary, Magdeburg (Germany) — Ca. 1210) — Brandenburg Evangeliary
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Two or Three Marys?

At this point it may be surprising that not even the representation of the women at the tomb is uniform. So there are just as many pictures with two Marys as with three. The fact that they also all bear the same name does not make the whole thing less confusing. However, this corresponds to the differing gospels, which do not tell the story in a uniform way either. Mark describes the situation most thoroughly:

"And when the sabbath was past, Mary Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James, and [Mary] Salome, had bought sweet spices, that they might come and anoint him. And very early in the morning the first day of the week, they came unto the sepulchre at the rising of the sun. And they said among themselves, Who shall roll us away the stone from the door of the sepulchre? And when they looked, they saw that the stone was rolled away: for it was very great. And entering into the sepulchre, they saw a young man sitting on the right side, clothed in a long white garment; and they were affrighted. And he saith unto them, Be not affrighted: Ye seek Jesus of Nazareth, which was crucified: he is risen; he is not here: behold the place where they laid him. But go your way, tell his disciples and Peter that he goeth before you into Galilee: there shall ye see him, as he said unto you. And they went out quickly, and fled from the sepulchre; for they trembled and were amazed: neither said they any thing to any man; for they were afraid." (Mark 16, 1-8)

In the Gospel Book from St. Peter’s, all three Marys are depicted at the empty tomb. They have with them ointment jars and a thurible, which they seem to present to the angel. (Gospel Book from St. Peter’s, Weissenburg Abbey (Alsace, France) — 1200) — Gospel Book from St. Peter’s
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The Guards at the Tomb of Christ

In many miniatures, the basic pictorial staff is complemented by two to four tomb guards, who are not mentioned at all in the Gospels at the encounter of the women and the angel. Only Matthew mentions them a few passages earlier:

"Now the next day, that followed the day of the preparation, the chief priests and Pharisees came together unto Pilate, Saying, Sir, we remember that that deceiver said, while he was yet alive, After three days I will rise again. Command therefore that the sepulchre be made sure until the third day, lest his disciples come by night, and steal him away, and say unto the people, He is risen from the dead: so the last error shall be worse than the first. Pilate said unto them, Ye have a watch: go your way, make it as sure as ye can. So they went, and made the sepulchre sure, sealing the stone, and setting a watch." (Matt 27, 62-66)

The two guards sit awkwardly on the dome of the mausoleum and almost merge with the architecture. While the left of the two leans bored on his arm and looks to the sky, the right stares resignedly into the distance. (Sacramentary of Henry II, Benedictine Abbey of St. Emmeram, Regensburg (Germany) — 1007–1014) — Sacramentary of Henry II
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Here, too, the two sleeping guards are almost completely hidden in the architecture. Only their helmeted heads, shields and lances protrude above the battlements. (Salzburg Pericopes, Monastery of St. Peter, Salzburg (Austria) — Around 1020) — Salzburg Pericopes
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The guards have an enormously important role due to the fact that they were sent by Christ's opponents: their presence was interpreted as proof that the body had not been stolen, but that a miracle had taken place. This may be the reason for their widespread representation, long canonized in the late Middle Ages.

As in the Brandenburg Evangeliary, the guards are mostly asleep or at least distracted as in the case of the Sacramentary of Henry II. Here, moreover, it becomes apparent how difficult it was at first to integrate the figures into the scene: the two guards sit inconspicuously on the roof of the mausoleum and look boredly around, without noticing the women and the angel. The Salzburg Pericopes even show just the heads of the sleeping guards hidden above the burial chamber.

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Piled up on top of each other and completely dismissed, the three guards were added to this miniature to the right of the burial cell. They are also depicted much smaller than the women and the angel, who also play a much more important role in the Gospels. (New Testament, Italy — First half of the 13th century) — New Testament
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Again, the two guards have little space in the Reichenau Gospel Lectionary: their bodies seem to merge straight into one, especially since they are mostly covered by a round shield. The two figures have been squeezed into an extremely narrow arcade on the right side, filled mainly by precious gold ground. (Reichenau Gospel Lectionary, Monastery of Reichenau (Germany) — 2nd half of the 11th century) — Reichenau Gospel Lectionary
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Other illuminators literally squeezed the figures right next to the scene. This is particularly clear in the New Testament: while the three Marys approach the tomb from the left, the guards sleep piled up on top of each other on the right side and do not even have any more ground under them. In the late Middle Ages, a solution is established that is probably perceived as more elegant, in which the guards are arranged in front of or below the sarcophagus - often arranged in a complete mess.

In the Speyer Pericopes, the sarcophagus occupies the entire width of the picture. Accordingly, the four guards were brought into the picture below in front of the sarcophagus. They sleep half lying, half sitting, while their tangled extremities and lances are stretched out confusingly. (Speyer Pericopes, Speyer or Trier (Germany) — Around 1220) — Speyer Pericopes
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Also in the Gospel Book from St. Peter’s the guards lie in front of the sarcophagus. Their uniform armor contributes to the fact that they merge straight into one mass and can hardly be distinguished. (Gospel Book from St. Peter’s, Weissenburg Abbey (Alsace, France) — 1200) — Gospel Book from St. Peter’s
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The Shroud

The artfully knotted white shroud hovers in front of the sarcophagus close above one of the sleeping guards - and thus makes it all the more clear that they have noticed absolutely nothing of the resurrection miracle. (Passau Evangeliary, Abbey of St. Nikola, Passau (Germany) — Ca. 1170–1180) — Passau Evangeliary
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In many miniatures, the shroud of Christ plays an important role as a visualization of the mystery of the resurrection - as unimpressive as it may sometimes be. The usually white cloth is the only trace of the earthly Jesus and at the same time the proof that he was buried in the tomb. It mostly hovers artfully tied together in front of the dark emptiness of the sarcophagus or tomb, as for example in the Passau Evangeliary or in the Sacramentary of Henry II. In the Life of Christ, on the other hand, there is a quite realistic depiction that shows the cloth spread out on the empty deathbed as if Christ had just disappeared.

While Christ's entombment can be seen on the left, the opposite side shows only the remaining shroud draped over the edges of the sarcophagus. It is the juxtaposition of the two scenes that makes the absence of Jesus' body all the more apparent. (Life of Christ, Perhaps Corbie (France) — Ca. 1175) — Life of Christ
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The artfully wrapped shroud is not in a prominent place in the picture here, but it stands out because of the strong contrast with the dark green sarcophagus. (Reichenau Gospel Lectionary, Monastery of Reichenau (Germany) — 2nd half of the 11th century) — Reichenau Gospel Lectionary
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In the open sarcophagus in the Salzburg Pericopes there are even two differently shaped shrouds. They flank the central axis of the miniature and, together with the empty tomb, form the starting point for the central figure of the Risen Christ in the upper register. (Salzburg Pericopes, Monastery of St. Peter, Salzburg (Austria) — Around 1020) — Salzburg Pericopes
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Resurrection from the Sarcophagus

In the late Middle Ages, the empty tomb increasingly fell into the background. Instead, people became increasingly interested in the Resurrection itself, and a new type of image emerged that was to find widespread use well into modern times, especially in panel painting: The Risen Christ ascends or floats from his tomb, which usually continues to retain the form of the sarcophagus, with a gesture of blessing and a triumphal cross. Christ's victory over death becomes the central pictorial theme.

The Passion cycle of the Anglo-Norman Martyrology from the end of the 13th century holds a magnificent combination of the different types of images. Here, Christ's Entombment is followed by the Resurrection with the participation of an angel. Two folios later, the three Marys at the empty tomb are additionally shown communicating with another angel. Later, the empty tomb even appears a third time: in particular, the shroud is inspected by the two disciples John and Peter.

On the left: The Entombment of Christ; On the right: The Resurrection. (Anglo‐Norman Martyrology: Picture Book of Madame Marie, Northern France — 1285–1290) — Anglo‐Norman Martyrology: Picture Book of Madame Marie
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On the left: The Three Women at the Tomb; On the right: The Harrowing of Hell. (Anglo‐Norman Martyrology: Picture Book of Madame Marie, Northern France — 1285–1290) — Anglo‐Norman Martyrology: Picture Book of Madame Marie
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On the left: The Incredulity of Saint Thomas; On the right: John and Peter at the empty tomb of Christ. (Anglo‐Norman Martyrology: Picture Book of Madame Marie, Northern France — 1285–1290) — Anglo‐Norman Martyrology: Picture Book of Madame Marie
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While the guards in the Resurrection miniature of the Anglo-Norman Martyrology are sleeping, the Mainz Gospels already indicate the further development of this group of figures: Full of terror, they look up at the Christ rising from the tomb and try to escape his glory in all directions. This variation became increasingly popular in the further course of the Middle Ages and modern times, as shown, for example, in the Gospel Book of Charles d'Orléans, Count of Angoulême. Here the left guard sitting on the ground seems to be almost blinded by Christ's triumph.

Gospel Book of Charles d'Orléans, Count of Angoulême

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The Ashburnham Pentateuch contains one of the most enigmatic depictions of chalices in medieval book illumination: Although the miniature depicts an Old Testament story - the Flood and Noah's sacrifice after the devastating catastrophe - three chalices were depicted on the altar at the lower left, rather than burnt offerings or sacrifices. They link the Old Testament story to the New Testament and thus to the Christian story of salvation. But why there are three chalices instead of one on the altar is still a mystery to researchers today. (Ashburnham Pentateuch, North Africa, Italy or Spain — 5th – middle of the 8th century) — Ashburnham Pentateuch
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The symbolism of the grave and the Resurrection also appears in the liturgical instrument of the Eucharistic celebration during the medieval Mass - namely in the chalice, in which the transformation of the wine into the blood of Christ for communion still takes place today. The chalice was not only seen as a practical device for this process, but was assigned many other layers of meaning: It is, on the one hand, the mystical site of the said transformation, the transubstantiation, but also a reference to the so-called Lord's words that Jesus spoke to his disciples at the Last Supper, and thus also a direct reference to this same Last Supper, also called the Lord's Supper. Furthermore, the chalice was interpreted by medieval scholars as the tomb of Christ, since its purpose is to contain and veil the holy blood. According to this, looking into the chalice corresponds to looking into the tomb of Christ. In addition, there is the handling of the flat, circular host during the medieval liturgy. For some time, this was placed on the chalice and therefore interpreted as the equivalent of the stone with which the tomb of Christ was sealed.

This last example may illustrate how widely present the mystery of the empty tomb and the Resurrection were as central pillars of the Christian faith in the medieval world. It is not for nothing that Easter is the most important Christian holiday. The artistic, theological and liturgical exploration of the theme went hand in hand.